leg(1)
NAME
peg, leg - parser generators
SYNOPSIS
peg [-hvV -ooutput] [filename ...] leg [-hvV -ooutput] [filename ...]
DESCRIPTION
peg and leg are tools for generating recursive-descent parsers: programs that perform pattern matching on text. They process a Parsing Expression Grammar (PEG) [Ford 2004] to produce a program that recognises legal sentences of that grammar. peg processes PEGs written using the original syntax described by Ford; leg processes PEGs written using slightly different syntax and conventions that are intended to make it an attractive replacement for parsers built with lex(1) and yacc(1). Unlike lex and yacc, peg and leg support unlimited backtracking, provide ordered choice as a means for disambiguation, and can combine scanning (lexical analysis) and parsing (syntactic analysis) into a single activity. peg reads the specified filenames, or standard input if no filenames are given, for a grammar describing the parser to generate. peg then generates a C source file that defines a function yyparse(). This C source file can be included in, or compiled and then linked with, a client program. Each time the client program calls yyparse() the parser consumes input text according to the parsing rules, starting from the first rule in the grammar. yyparse() returns non-zero if the input could be parsed according to the grammar; it returns zero if the input could not be parsed. The prefix 'yy' or 'YY' is prepended to all externally-visible symbols in the generated parser. This is intended to reduce the risk of namespace pollution in client programs. (The choice of 'yy' is historical; see lex(1) and yacc(1), for example.)
OPTIONS
peg and leg provide the following options:
-h prints a summary of available options and then exits.
-ooutput
writes the generated parser to the file output instead of the
standard output.
-P suppresses #line directives in the output.
-v writes verbose information to standard error while working.
-V writes version information to standard error then exits.
A SIMPLE EXAMPLE
The following peg input specifies a grammar with a single rule (called
'start') that is satisfied when the input contains the string
"username".
start <- "username"
(The quotation marks are not part of the matched text; they serve to
indicate a literal string to be matched.) In other words, yyparse() in
the generated C source will return non-zero only if the next eight
characters read from the input spell the word "username". If the input
contains anything else, yyparse() returns zero and no input will have
been consumed. (Subsequent calls to yyparse() will also return zero,
since the parser is effectively blocked looking for the string
"username".) To ensure progress we can add an alternative clause to
the 'start' rule that will match any single character if "username" is
not found.
start <- "username"
/ .
yyparse() now always returns non-zero (except at the very end of the
input). To do something useful we can add actions to the rules. These
actions are performed after a complete match is found (starting from
the first rule) and are chosen according to the 'path' taken through
the grammar to match the input. (Linguists would call this path a
'phrase marker'.)
start <- "username" { printf("%s\n", getlogin()); }
/ < . > { putchar(yytext[0]); }
The first line instructs the parser to print the user's login name
whenever it sees "username" in the input. If that match fails, the
second line tells the parser to echo the next character on the input
the standard output. Our parser is now performing useful work: it will
copy the input to the output, replacing all occurrences of "username"
with the user's account name.
Note the angle brackets ('<' and '>') that were added to the second
alternative. These have no effect on the meaning of the rule, but
serve to delimit the text made available to the following action in the
variable yytext.
If the above grammar is placed in the file username.peg, running the
command
peg -o username.c username.peg
will save the corresponding parser in the file username.c. To create a
complete program this parser could be included by a C program as
follows.
#include <stdio.h> /* printf(), putchar() */
#include <unistd.h> /* getlogin() */
#include "username.c" /* yyparse() */
int main()
{
while (yyparse()) /* repeat until EOF */
;
return 0;
}
PEG GRAMMARS
A grammar consists of a set of named rules.
name <- pattern
The pattern contains one or more of the following elements.
name The element stands for the entire pattern in the rule with the
given name.
"characters"
A character or string enclosed in double quotes is matched
literally. The ANSI C escape sequences are recognised within
the characters.
'characters'
A character or string enclosed in single quotes is matched
literally, as above.
[characters]
A set of characters enclosed in square brackets matches any
single character from the set, with escape characters recognised
as above. If the set begins with an uparrow (^) then the set is
negated (the element matches any character not in the set). Any
pair of characters separated with a dash (-) represents the
range of characters from the first to the second, inclusive. A
single alphabetic character or underscore is matched by the
following set.
[a-zA-Z_]
Similarly, the following matches any single non-digit
character.
[^0-9]
. A dot matches any character. Note that the only time this fails
is at the end of file, where there is no character to match.
( pattern )
Parentheses are used for grouping (modifying the precedence of
the operators described below).
{ action }
Curly braces surround actions. The action is arbitrary C source
code to be executed at the end of matching. Any braces within
the action must be properly nested. Any input text that was
matched before the action and delimited by angle brackets (see
below) is made available within the action as the contents of
the character array yytext. The length of (number of characters
in) yytext is available in the variable yyleng. (These variable
names are historical; see lex(1).)
< An opening angle bracket always matches (consuming no input) and
causes the parser to begin accumulating matched text. This text
will be made available to actions in the variable yytext.
> A closing angle bracket always matches (consuming no input) and
causes the parser to stop accumulating text for yytext.
The above elements can be made optional and/or repeatable with the
following suffixes:
element ?
The element is optional. If present on the input, it is
consumed and the match succeeds. If not present on the input,
no text is consumed and the match succeeds anyway.
element +
The element is repeatable. If present on the input, one or more
occurrences of element are consumed and the match succeeds. If
no occurrences of element are present on the input, the match
fails.
element *
The element is optional and repeatable. If present on the
input, one or more occurrences of element are consumed and the
match succeeds. If no occurrences of element are present on the
input, the match succeeds anyway.
The above elements and suffixes can be converted into predicates (that
match arbitrary input text and subsequently succeed or fail without
consuming that input) with the following prefixes:
& element
The predicate succeeds only if element can be matched. Input
text scanned while matching element is not consumed from the
input and remains available for subsequent matching.
! element
The predicate succeeds only if element cannot be matched. Input
text scanned while matching element is not consumed from the
input and remains available for subsequent matching. A popular
idiom is
!.
which matches the end of file, after the last character of the
input has already been consumed.
A special form of the '&' predicate is provided:
&{ expression }
In this predicate the simple C expression (not statement) is
evaluated immediately when the parser reaches the predicate. If
the expression yields non-zero (true) the 'match' succeeds and
the parser continues with the next element in the pattern. If
the expression yields zero (false) the 'match' fails and the
parser backs up to look for an alternative parse of the input.
Several elements (with or without prefixes and suffixes) can be
combined into a sequence by writing them one after the other. The
entire sequence matches only if each individual element within it
matches, from left to right.
Sequences can be separated into disjoint alternatives by the
alternation operator '/'.
sequence-1 / sequence-2 / ... / sequence-N
Each sequence is tried in turn until one of them matches, at
which time matching for the overall pattern succeeds. If none
of the sequences matches then the match of the overall pattern
fails.
Finally, the pound sign (#) introduces a comment (discarded) that
continues until the end of the line.
To summarise the above, the parser tries to match the input text
against a pattern containing literals, names (representing other
rules), and various operators (written as prefixes, suffixes,
juxtaposition for sequencing and and infix alternation operator) that
modify how the elements within the pattern are matched. Matches are
made from left to right, 'descending' into named sub-rules as they are
encountered. If the matching process fails, the parser 'back tracks'
('rewinding' the input appropriately in the process) to find the
nearest alternative 'path' through the grammar. In other words the
parser performs a depth-first, left-to-right search for the first
successfully-matching path through the rules. If found, the actions
along the successful path are executed (in the order they were
encountered).
Note that predicates are evaluated immediately during the search for a
successful match, since they contribute to the success or failure of
the search. Actions, however, are evaluated only after a successful
match has been found.
PEG GRAMMAR FOR PEG GRAMMARS
The grammar for peg grammars is shown below. This will both illustrate
and formalise the above description.
Grammar <- Spacing Definition+ EndOfFile
Definition <- Identifier LEFTARROW Expression
Expression <- Sequence ( SLASH Sequence )*
Sequence <- Prefix*
Prefix <- AND Action
/ ( AND | NOT )? Suffix
Suffix <- Primary ( QUERY / STAR / PLUS )?
Primary <- Identifier !LEFTARROW
/ OPEN Expression CLOSE
/ Literal
/ Class
/ DOT
/ Action
/ BEGIN
/ END
Identifier <- < IdentStart IdentCont* > Spacing
IdentStart <- [a-zA-Z_]
IdentCont <- IdentStart / [0-9]
Literal <- ['] < ( !['] Char )* > ['] Spacing
/ ["] < ( !["] Char )* > ["] Spacing
Class <- '[' < ( !']' Range )* > ']' Spacing
Range <- Char '-' Char / Char
Char <- '\\' [abefnrtv'"\[\]\\]
/ '\\' [0-3][0-7][0-7]
/ '\\' [0-7][0-7]?
/ '\\' '-'
/ !'\\' .
LEFTARROW <- '<-' Spacing
SLASH <- '/' Spacing
AND <- '&' Spacing
NOT <- '!' Spacing
QUERY <- '?' Spacing
STAR <- '*' Spacing
PLUS <- '+' Spacing
OPEN <- '(' Spacing
CLOSE <- ')' Spacing
DOT <- '.' Spacing
Spacing <- ( Space / Comment )*
Comment <- '#' ( !EndOfLine . )* EndOfLine
Space <- ' ' / '\t' / EndOfLine
EndOfLine <- '\r\n' / '\n' / '\r'
EndOfFile <- !.
Action <- '{' < [^}]* > '}' Spacing
BEGIN <- '<' Spacing
END <- '>' Spacing
LEG GRAMMARS
leg is a variant of peg that adds some features of lex(1) and yacc(1). It differs from peg in the following ways. %{ text... %} A declaration section can appear anywhere that a rule definition is expected. The text between the delimiters '%{' and '%}' is copied verbatim to the generated C parser code before the code that implements the parser itself. name = pattern The 'assignment' operator replaces the left arrow operator '<-'. rule-name Hyphens can appear as letters in the names of rules. Each hyphen is converted into an underscore in the generated C source code. A single hyphen '-' is a legal rule name. - = [ \t\n\r]* number = [0-9]+ - name = [a-zA-Z_][a-zA_Z_0-9]* - l-paren = '(' - r-paren = ')' - This example shows how ignored whitespace can be obvious when reading the grammar and yet unobtrusive when placed liberally at the end of every rule associated with a lexical element. seq-1 | seq-2 The alternation operator is vertical bar '|' rather than forward slash '/'. The peg rule name <- sequence-1 / sequence-2 / sequence-3 is therefore written name = sequence-1 | sequence-2 | sequence-3 ; in leg (with the final semicolon being optional, as described next). @{ action } Actions prefixed with an 'at' symbol will be performed during parsing, at the time they are encountered while matching the input text with a rule. Because of back-tracking in the PEG parsing algorithm, actions prefixed with '@' might be performed multiple times for the same input text. (The usual behviour of actions is that they are saved up until matching is complete, and then those that are part of the final derivation are performed in left-to-right order.) The variable yytext is available within these actions. exp ~ { action } A postfix operator ~{ action } can be placed after any expression and will behave like a normal action (arbitrary C code) except that it is invoked only when exp fails. It binds less tightly than any other operator except alternation and sequencing, and is intended to make error handling and recovery code easier to write. Note that yytext and yyleng are not available inside these actions, but the pointer variable yy is available to give the code access to any user-defined members of the parser state (see "CUSTOMISING THE PARSER" below). Note also that exp is always a single expression; to invoke an error action for any failure within a sequence, parentheses must be used to group the sequence into a single expression. rule = e1 e2 e3 ~{ error("e[12] ok; e3 has failed"); } | ... rule = (e1 e2 e3) ~{ error("one of e[123] has failed"); } | ... pattern ; A semicolon punctuator can optionally terminate a pattern. %% text... A double percent '%%' terminates the rules (and declarations) section of the grammar. All text following '%%' is copied verbatim to the generated C parser code after the parser implementation code. $$ = value A sub-rule can return a semantic value from an action by assigning it to the pseudo-variable '$$'. All semantic values must have the same type (which defaults to 'int'). This type can be changed by defining YYSTYPE in a declaration section. identifier:name The semantic value returned (by assigning to '$$') from the sub-rule name is associated with the identifier and can be referred to in subsequent actions. The desk calculator example below illustrates the use of '$$' and ':'.
LEG EXAMPLE: A DESK CALCULATOR
The extensions in leg described above allow useful parsers and
evaluators (including declarations, grammar rules, and supporting C
functions such as 'main') to be kept within a single source file. To
illustrate this we show a simple desk calculator supporting the four
common arithmetic operators and named variables. The intermediate
results of arithmetic evaluation will be accumulated on an implicit
stack by returning them as semantic values from sub-rules.
%{
#include <stdio.h> /* printf() */
#include <stdlib.h> /* atoi() */
int vars[26];
%}
Stmt = - e:Expr EOL { printf("%d\n", e); }
| ( !EOL . )* EOL { printf("error\n"); }
Expr = i:ID ASSIGN s:Sum { $$ = vars[i] = s; }
| s:Sum { $$ = s; }
Sum = l:Product
( PLUS r:Product { l += r; }
| MINUS r:Product { l -= r; }
)* { $$ = l; }
Product = l:Value
( TIMES r:Value { l *= r; }
| DIVIDE r:Value { l /= r; }
)* { $$ = l; }
Value = i:NUMBER { $$ = atoi(yytext); }
| i:ID !ASSIGN { $$ = vars[i]; }
| OPEN i:Expr CLOSE { $$ = i; }
NUMBER = < [0-9]+ > - { $$ = atoi(yytext); }
ID = < [a-z] > - { $$ = yytext[0] - 'a'; }
ASSIGN = '=' -
PLUS = '+' -
MINUS = '-' -
TIMES = '*' -
DIVIDE = '/' -
OPEN = '(' -
CLOSE = ')' -
- = [ \t]*
EOL = '\n' | '\r\n' | '\r' | ';'
%%
int main()
{
while (yyparse())
;
return 0;
}
LEG GRAMMAR FOR LEG GRAMMARS
The grammar for leg grammars is shown below. This will both illustrate
and formalise the above description.
grammar = -
( declaration | definition )+
trailer? end-of-file
declaration = '%{' < ( !'%}' . )* > RPERCENT
trailer = '%%' < .* >
definition = identifier EQUAL expression SEMICOLON?
expression = sequence ( BAR sequence )*
sequence = error+
error = prefix ( TILDE action )?
prefix = AND action
| ( AND | NOT )? suffix
suffix = primary ( QUERY | STAR | PLUS )?
primary = identifier COLON identifier !EQUAL
| identifier !EQUAL
| OPEN expression CLOSE
| literal
| class
| DOT
| action
| BEGIN
| END
identifier = < [-a-zA-Z_][-a-zA-Z_0-9]* > -
literal = ['] < ( !['] char )* > ['] -
| ["] < ( !["] char )* > ["] -
class = '[' < ( !']' range )* > ']' -
range = char '-' char | char
char = '\\' [abefnrtv'"\[\]\\]
| '\\' [0-3][0-7][0-7]
| '\\' [0-7][0-7]?
| !'\\' .
action = '{' < braces* > '}' -
braces = '{' braces* '}'
| !'}' .
EQUAL = '=' -
COLON = ':' -
SEMICOLON = ';' -
BAR = '|' -
AND = '&' -
NOT = '!' -
QUERY = '?' -
STAR = '*' -
PLUS = '+' -
OPEN = '(' -
CLOSE = ')' -
DOT = '.' -
BEGIN = '<' -
END = '>' -
TILDE = '~' -
RPERCENT = '%}' -
- = ( space | comment )*
space = ' ' | '\t' | end-of-line
comment = '#' ( !end-of-line . )* end-of-line
end-of-line = '\r\n' | '\n' | '\r'
end-of-file = !.
CUSTOMISING THE PARSER
The following symbols can be redefined in declaration sections to
modify the generated parser code.
YYSTYPE
The semantic value type. The pseudo-variable '$$' and the
identifiers 'bound' to rule results with the colon operator ':'
should all be considered as being declared to have this type.
The default value is 'int'.
YYPARSE
The name of the main entry point to the parser. The default
value is 'yyparse'.
YYPARSEFROM
The name of an alternative entry point to the parser. This
function expects one argument: the function corresponding to the
rule from which the search for a match should begin. The
default is 'yyparsefrom'. Note that yyparse() is defined as
int yyparse() { return yyparsefrom(yy_foo); }
where 'foo' is the name of the first rule in the grammar.
YY_INPUT(buf, result, max_size)
This macro is invoked by the parser to obtain more input text.
buf points to an area of memory that can hold at most max_size
characters. The macro should copy input text to buf and then
assign the integer variable result to indicate the number of
characters copied. If no more input is available, the macro
should assign 0 to result. By default, the YY_INPUT macro is
defined as follows.
#define YY_INPUT(buf, result, max_size) \
{ \
int yyc= getchar(); \
result= (EOF == yyc) ? 0 : (*(buf)= yyc, 1); \
}
Note that if YY_CTX_LOCAL is defined (see below) then an
additional first argument, containing the parser context, is
passed to YY_INPUT.
YY_DEBUG
If this symbols is defined then additional code will be included
in the parser that prints vast quantities of arcane information
to the standard error while the parser is running.
YY_BEGIN
This macro is invoked to mark the start of input text that will
be made available in actions as 'yytext'. This corresponds to
occurrences of '<' in the grammar. These are converted into
predicates that are expected to succeed. The default definition
#define YY_BEGIN (yybegin= yypos, 1)
therefore saves the current input position and returns 1
('true') as the result of the predicate.
YY_END This macros corresponds to '>' in the grammar. Again, it is a
predicate so the default definition saves the input position
before 'succeeding'.
#define YY_END (yyend= yypos, 1)
YY_PARSE(T)
This macro declares the parser entry points (yyparse and
yyparsefrom) to be of type T. The default definition
#define YY_PARSE(T) T
leaves yyparse() and yyparsefrom() with global visibility. If
they should not be externally visible in other source files,
this macro can be redefined to declare them 'static'.
#define YY_PARSE(T) static T
YY_CTX_LOCAL
If this symbol is defined during compilation of a generated
parser then global parser state will be kept in a structure of
type 'yycontext' which can be declared as a local variable.
This allows multiple instances of parsers to coexist and to be
thread-safe. The parsing function yyparse() will be declared to
expect a first argument of type 'yycontext *', an instance of
the structure holding the global state for the parser. This
instance must be allocated and initialised to zero by the
client. A trivial but complete example is as follows.
#include <stdio.h>
#define YY_CTX_LOCAL
#include "the-generated-parser.peg.c"
int main()
{
yycontext ctx;
memset(&ctx, 0, sizeof(yycontext));
while (yyparse(&ctx));
return 0;
}
Note that if this symbol is undefined then the compiled parser
will statically allocate its global state and will be neither
reentrant nor thread-safe. Note also that the parser yycontext
structure is initialised automatically the first time yyparse()
is called; this structure must therefore be properly initialised
to zero before the first call to yyparse().
YY_CTX_MEMBERS
If YY_CTX_LOCAL is defined (see above) then the macro
YY_CTX_MEMBERS can be defined to expand to any additional member
field declarations that the client would like included in the
declaration of the 'yycontext' structure type. These additional
members are otherwise ignored by the generated parser. The
instance of 'yycontext' associated with the currently-active
parser is available within actions as the pointer variable yy.
YY_BUFFER_SIZE
The initial size of the text buffer, in bytes. The default is
1024 and the buffer size is doubled whenever required to meet
demand during parsing. An application that typically parses
much longer strings could increase this to avoid unnecessary
buffer reallocation.
YY_STACK_SIZE
The initial size of the variable and action stacks. The default
is 128, which is doubled whenever required to meet demand during
parsing. Applications that have deep call stacks with many
local variables, or that perform many actions after a single
successful match, could increase this to avoid unnecessary
buffer reallocation.
YY_MALLOC(YY, SIZE)
The memory allocator for all parser-related storage. The
parameters are the current yycontext structure and the number of
bytes to allocate. The default definition is: malloc(SIZE)
YY_REALLOC(YY, PTR, SIZE)
The memory reallocator for dynamically-grown storage (such as
text buffers and variable stacks). The parameters are the
current yycontext structure, the previously-allocated storage,
and the number of bytes to which that storage should be grown.
The default definition is: realloc(PTR, SIZE)
YY_FREE(YY, PTR)
The memory deallocator. The parameters are the current
yycontext structure and the storage to deallocate. The default
definition is: free(PTR)
YYRELEASE
The name of the function that releases all resources held by a
yycontext structure. The default value is 'yyrelease'.
The following variables can be referred to within actions.
char *yybuf
This variable points to the parser's input buffer used to store
input text that has not yet been matched.
int yypos
This is the offset (in yybuf) of the next character to be
matched and consumed.
char *yytext
The most recent matched text delimited by '<' and '>' is stored
in this variable.
int yyleng
This variable indicates the number of characters in 'yytext'.
yycontext *yy
This variable points to the instance of 'yycontext' associated
with the currently-active parser.
Programs that wish to release all the resources associated with a
parser can use the following function.
yyrelease(yycontext*yy)
Returns all parser-allocated storage associated with yy to the
system. The storage will be reallocated on the next call to
yyparse().
Note that the storage for the yycontext structure itself is never
allocated or reclaimed implicitly. The application must allocate these
structures in automatic storage, or use calloc() and free() to manage
them explicitly. The example in the following section demonstrates one
approach to resource management.
LEG EXAMPLE: EXTENDING THE PARSER'S CONTEXT
The yy variable passed to actions contains the state of the parser plus
any additional fields defined by YY_CTX_MEMBERS. Theses fields can be
used to store application-specific information that is global to a
particular call of yyparse(). A trivial but complete leg example
follows in which the yycontext structure is extended with a count of
the number of newline characters seen in the input so far (the grammar
otherwise consumes and ignores the entire input). The caller of
yyparse() uses count to print the number of lines of input that were
read.
%{
#define YY_CTX_LOCAL 1
#define YY_CTX_MEMBERS \
int count;
%}
Char = ('\n' | '\r\n' | '\r') { yy->count++ }
| .
%%
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
int main()
{
/* create a local parser context in automatic storage */
yycontext yy;
/* the context *must* be initialised to zero before first use*/
memset(&yy, 0, sizeof(yy));
while (yyparse(&yy))
;
printf("%d newlines\n", yy.count);
/* release all resources associated with the context */
yyrelease(&yy);
return 0;
}
DIAGNOSTICS
peg and leg warn about the following conditions while converting a
grammar into a parser.
syntax error
The input grammar was malformed in some way. The error message
will include the text about to be matched (often backed up a
huge amount from the actual location of the error) and the line
number of the most recently considered character (which is often
the real location of the problem).
rule 'foo' used but not defined
The grammar referred to a rule named 'foo' but no definition for
it was given. Attempting to use the generated parser will
likely result in errors from the linker due to undefined symbols
associated with the missing rule.
rule 'foo' defined but not used
The grammar defined a rule named 'foo' and then ignored it. The
code associated with the rule is included in the generated
parser which will in all other respects be healthy.
possible infinite left recursion in rule 'foo'
There exists at least one path through the grammar that leads
from the rule 'foo' back to (a recursive invocation of) the same
rule without consuming any input.
Left recursion, especially that found in standards documents, is often
'direct' and implies trivial repetition.
# (6.7.6)
direct-abstract-declarator =
LPAREN abstract-declarator RPAREN
| direct-abstract-declarator? LBRACKET assign-expr? RBRACKET
| direct-abstract-declarator? LBRACKET STAR RBRACKET
| direct-abstract-declarator? LPAREN param-type-list? RPAREN
The recursion can easily be eliminated by converting the parts of the
pattern following the recursion into a repeatable suffix.
# (6.7.6)
direct-abstract-declarator =
direct-abstract-declarator-head?
direct-abstract-declarator-tail*
direct-abstract-declarator-head =
LPAREN abstract-declarator RPAREN
direct-abstract-declarator-tail =
LBRACKET assign-expr? RBRACKET
| LBRACKET STAR RBRACKET
| LPAREN param-type-list? RPAREN
CAVEATS
A parser that accepts empty input will always succeed. Consider the
following example, not atypical of a first attempt to write a PEG-based
parser:
Program = Expression*
Expression = "whatever"
%%
int main() {
while (yyparse())
puts("success!");
return 0;
}
This program loops forever, no matter what (if any) input is provided
on stdin. Many fixes are possible, the easiest being to insist that
the parser always consumes some non-empty input. Changing the first
line to
Program = Expression+
accomplishes this. If the parser is expected to consume the entire
input, then explicitly requiring the end-of-file is also highly
recommended:
Program = Expression+ !.
This works because the parser will only fail to match ("!" predicate)
any character at all ("." expression) when it attempts to read beyond
the end of the input.
BUGS
You have to type 'man peg' to read the manual page for leg(1). The 'yy' and 'YY' prefixes cannot be changed. Left recursion is detected in the input grammar but is not handled correctly in the generated parser. Diagnostics for errors in the input grammar are obscure and not particularly helpful. The operators ! and ~ should really be named the other way around. Several commonly-used lex(1) features (yywrap(), yyin, etc.) are completely absent. The generated parser does not contain '#line' directives to direct C compiler errors back to the grammar description when appropriate.
SEE ALSO
D. Val Schorre, META II, a syntax-oriented compiler writing language, 19th ACM National Conference, 1964, pp. 41.301--41.311. Describes a self-implementing parser generator for analytic grammars with no backtracking. Alexander Birman, The TMG Recognition Schema, Ph.D. dissertation, Princeton, 1970. A mathematical treatment of the power and complexity of recursive-descent parsing with backtracking. Bryan Ford, Parsing Expression Grammars: A Recognition-Based Syntactic Foundation, ACM SIGPLAN Symposium on Principles of Programming Languages, 2004. Defines PEGs and analyses them in relation to context-free and regular grammars. Introduces the syntax adopted in peg. The standard Unix utilities lex(1) and yacc(1) which influenced the syntax and features of leg. The source code for peg and leg whose grammar parsers are written using themselves. The latest version of this software and documentation: http://piumarta.com/software/peg
AUTHOR
peg, leg and this manual page were written by Ian Piumarta (first-name at last-name dot com) while investigating the viability of regular and parsing-expression grammars for efficiently extracting type and signature information from C header files. Please send bug reports and suggestions for improvements to the author at the above address.
Opportunity
Personal Opportunity - Free software gives you access to billions of dollars of software at no cost. Use this software for your business, personal use or to develop a profitable skill. Access to source code provides access to a level of capabilities/information that companies protect though copyrights. Open source is a core component of the Internet and it is available to you. Leverage the billions of dollars in resources and capabilities to build a career, establish a business or change the world. The potential is endless for those who understand the opportunity.
Business Opportunity - Goldman Sachs, IBM and countless large corporations are leveraging open source to reduce costs, develop products and increase their bottom lines. Learn what these companies know about open source and how open source can give you the advantage.
Free Software
Free Software provides computer programs and capabilities at no cost but more importantly, it provides the freedom to run, edit, contribute to, and share the software. The importance of free software is a matter of access, not price. Software at no cost is a benefit but ownership rights to the software and source code is far more significant.
Free Office Software - The Libre Office suite provides top desktop productivity tools for free. This includes, a word processor, spreadsheet, presentation engine, drawing and flowcharting, database and math applications. Libre Office is available for Linux or Windows.
Free Books
The Free Books Library is a collection of thousands of the most popular public domain books in an online readable format. The collection includes great classical literature and more recent works where the U.S. copyright has expired. These books are yours to read and use without restrictions.
Source Code - Want to change a program or know how it works? Open Source provides the source code for its programs so that anyone can use, modify or learn how to write those programs themselves. Visit the GNU source code repositories to download the source.
Education
Study at Harvard, Stanford or MIT - Open edX provides free online courses from Harvard, MIT, Columbia, UC Berkeley and other top Universities. Hundreds of courses for almost all major subjects and course levels. Open edx also offers some paid courses and selected certifications.
Linux Manual Pages - A man or manual page is a form of software documentation found on Linux/Unix operating systems. Topics covered include computer programs (including library and system calls), formal standards and conventions, and even abstract concepts.
